The New Spain
Independence Problem
The Mexican elite ran into numerous
problems trying to constitute a new nation and in turn, it affected their
ability to govern and maintain sovereignty. The divisions that occurred were
economic, political, and social in nature. One prominent nineteenth century
liberal characterized Mexico as a “society of societies”.[1] The
process of Mexican independence had taken on all kinds of characteristics,
between autonomists wanting to keep the position of King and absolutists
advocating for full independence. The Viceroyalty of New Spain had an end goal
in sight but by the end of the independence movement, they ended up with the
exact thing they were trying to prevent, a powerful central government with no
limits on power. Economically, their position on slavery and the inability of
the state to become recognized by other foreign powers as legitimate would play
a huge role in the movement as well. With all these issues standing in their
way, it was clear from the get go that blood would have to be shed to unite the
nation and make it whole again.
The Mexican War of Independence can
be traced all the way back to 1624, when the very first Viceroyalty of Spain was
ousted by the encomienda.[2] It
also has roots in the Enlightenment, when English speaking philosophers got
together and said that governments could help improve the lives of individuals.
Before Hidalgo’s uprising in 1810, punishment for treason against the crown was
swift. If you look at the political makeup of the independence movement, it is
clear that there are two main political parties, conservatives and liberals.
Conservatives were in favor of the Catholic Church and a monarchy, with no
separation of church and state. Liberals on the other hand, favored secularism
and were in support of having a republic.[3] This
movement for independence also took on the characteristic of resisting Spanish
rule throughout the Americas once the Bourbon Reforms were enacted. The Bourbon
Reforms essentially levied taxes on Mexico and other Spanish colonies to pay
for the European Wars.[4] The
ideas behind Father Hidalgo’s fight included the distaste for the French after
the invasion by Napoleon and at the same time, he advocated for full
independence. Once he is killed in 1811, civil war begins between the
autonomists and absolutists, and Hidalgo is thrusted into the spotlight as a
martyr for this cause. The independence movement is chaotic to say the least
because you have multiple sides offering different solutions.
The
topic of social unrest is important too because it is the very reason this
campaign began in the first place. You had more competition for land and
Indians rebelling against New Spain’s colonial rule. Socially, Mexico was
divided into several ethnic groups consisting of American born Spaniards,
Africans, and Castas. All these classes believed in profitable trade and
commerce, and when Spanish economic protectionism threatened this very idea,
social unrest began. The people did not recognize Spain’s rule as legitimate,
resulting in the Crisis of 1808. Problems stemmed from a division over those
autonomists wanting to retain the position of the King and the absolutists,
whom said no to a monarch. One could even make the argument that these social
issues go way back, to when the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan was sacked in 1521
by the Spaniards and Cortes. The crown’s unsuccessful attempt to take control
from the governing juntas did not make things any less easy.
With
the social hierarchy now in disarray, Mexico had to rise up from the ashes of
conquest and unite the people. The Crisis of 1808 presented this opportunity to
upset the status quo and as Virginia Guedea puts it:
“Originating in the heart of the empire, when
Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Spain, it precipitated a series of rapid changes
that, in the beginning, like the crisis itself, were fundamentally political.”[5]
She
also later goes on to say that while Spain wanted to constitute a new order,
this allowed for the political participation of individuals, and it undermined
the significance of the insurgency for the disaffected in the viceroyalty.[6]
The Spaniard criollos also resented being treated as second class citizens and
as a lower step of the racial hierarchy.[7]
These were the main challenges confronted by the political elite during the
transition from viceroyalty to a federal and central republic. Iturbide had
also failed to maintain unity by declaring himself Emperor. After the Plan of
Iguala is signed in 1821 by Mexican leaders, there was no separation of church
and state, and it limited the power of the generals. The constitutional
monarchy is then replaced by a federal republic after Iturbide is thrown out
from office.[8]
Sovereignty resides with the people and provinces, creating a loose
confederation. This confederal republic left the central government power
structure weak, law and order was impossible to enforce, and it gave more power
to the states.
During the time of the federal republic,
Mexico became plagued with internal issues over states’ rights and externally
as well, with the Mexican-American War being fought in Texas. These problems jeopardized
Mexico’s livelihood and sovereignty. It also affected their ability to maintain
unity among the population itself. The issue over slavery began when Moses
Austin (the father of Stephen Austin) received permission from the Mexican
government to colonize the territory of Texas. No mention of slavery was made
in this petition.[9]
During my research, I also discovered that the vast numbers of slaves who were
first brought into Texas were originally from the South. Mexico’s positon on
slavery came from their gaining of independence from Spain, advocating
liberalism instead.[10]
They did not have a great number of slaves anyway, so to them, emancipation was
the easiest route to go down. Under Iturbide’s administration however, American
immigrants were free to bring their African slaves into Texas.[11]
This all changed with the federal laws of Mexico, which stated:
“1. Commerce and
traffic in slaves, proceeding from any country and under any flag whatsoever,
is forever prohibited in the territory of the United Mexican States.
2. Slaves that are introduced contrary to the tenor of the above article are free in virtue of the mere act of treading Mexican territory.”[12]
2. Slaves that are introduced contrary to the tenor of the above article are free in virtue of the mere act of treading Mexican territory.”[12]
During
the time of the centralist republic, Mexico was encountering fierce resistance
inside and outside its continental boundaries. Beginning with Santa Anna’s rise
to power, stiff laws were imposed upon Mexico and Texas had just begun its revolution
against their rule. Mexico’s territorial integrity was at stake. This period
has been characterized as an inglorious, militaristic rule, culminating in the
annexation by the United States of over half of Mexican territory.[13]
It got so bad that the Republic of Mexico was basically governed by eleven
different Presidents, many of whom never saw the end of their terms. In 1845,
the United States annexes Texas as a state and so begins the Mexican-American
War. In addition to ceding California, Texas, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah, a
new boundary was set at the Rio Grande River by the end of the war.[14]
Mexico had lost and the two main political parties would again be at war each
other not long after, batting heads in the Reform War.
Overall,
I’d have to say that Mexico had endured enough pain to last two lifetimes. The
absolutists and autonomists had great ideas when it came to liberalism, but it
just didn’t work out the way they wanted it to. The only question I really had
during my studies: Why did Mexico bounce around with so many different forms of
government? The difficulties of the Mexican elite to maintain stability ultimately
ushered in a period of over fifty years or so of turmoil. This affected their
economy as well. Mexico had gained its independence and right to become
formally recognized by other nations, but at what cost? They had achieved what
no country besides the United States had done during this point in time. It is
a dazzling display of history.
Bibliography
[1] Hernández Chávez, Alicia.
2006. Mexico : A Brief History. Berkeley, Calif.: University of
California Press, p. 127.
[2] Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and
Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico. Prentice Hall
2003, pp. 246-247.
[4] Barbier,
Jacques. “The Culmination of the Bourbon Reforms, 1787–1792.” Hispanic
American Historical Review 57 (February 1977): 51–68.
[5] Guedea, Virginia. 2000. The
Process of Mexican Independence. The American Historical Review.
105, no. 1: 116-130.
[6] Ibid
[7] Ivan
Arturo Ebergenyi Thorpe. “Mexico’s War of Independence.” The Mexico News Network, September 16, 2015. <http://www.mexiconewsnetwork.com/art-culture/mexico-war-independence/>
[8] De Iturbide, Agustín. "Plan de Iguala". Leaflets.
1821. Woodson Research Center, Rice University, Americas collection, 1811-1920, MS 518.
[9] Lester G. Bugbee. “Slavery in Early Texas.” The Political Science
Quarterly, vol. III, no.3, 1898.
[10] Ibid
[11] Ibid
[12] Ibid
[13] Thomson, G P C. 1995. The
Central Republic in Mexico, 1835-1846: Hombres De Bien in the Age of Santa
Anna Journal of Latin American Studies. 27, no. 3: 714.
[14] The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. National Archives. Retrieved: October
11, 2015.
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